The following information was collated from the:

*CHIPCO 1998 Technical Manual,
**B.A. Auld & R.W. Medd, 1987, Weeds, An Illustrated Botanical Guide to the Weeds of  Australia, Inkata Press, Melbourne.
***Scotts Guide to the Identification of Turfgrass Diseases and Insects 1987, Scott & Sons Co, Ohio

POISONING

Absorption of Pesticides into the Body

From the records of cases of accidental human poisoning with agricultural chemicals, over 85% have entered the body via skin contact, "dermal absorption". The most common areas of contact are via: the neck, chest and forearm. This is because these parts of the body are the most exposed when handling, mixing and using chemicals. It is most important to keep these areas covered with protective clothing.

Other parts of the body are also susceptible to absorption, some areas more than others. Below you will find a diagram of a body with relative absorption rates expressed in relation to the forearm which has been given a value of 1.

Relative absorption Rates are					What to do in an Emergency:
		Forearm	1.0		In a Transport Emergency	Dial 000
		Palm of hand	1.3			Police or Fire Brigade
		Ball of foot	1.6
		Abdomen	2.1		For a 24 hour specialist	Phone 1800 033 111
		Scalp	3.7		advice in Emergency Only	all hours Australia Wide.
		Forehead	4.2
		Ear	5.4
		Scrotal area	11.8

DISEASES OF SUMMER AND EARLY AUTUMN

In temperate areas of the country brown patch is mostly likely to become active during the late spring and summer. Infestation is swiftly triggered when nights are warm, winds are calm and the air is saturated with moisture Closely mowed turf and particularly the bentgrasses of golf courses are especially susceptible and easily damaged. Under ideal conditions many parts of tees, greens and fairways can be attacked simultaneously. All warm season grasses are affected in varying degrees, but it can become extremely destructive on St Augustinegrass
( Buffalo turf) from Autumn to early spring. Injury often covers large areas of turf and it is not unusual to see much of an entire lawn infected. During this same period, brown patch can be a particular problem on golf greens and other turf areas which have been overseeded to ryegrass.

brown patch***

Moisture on the grass blade is essential to the spread of brown patch. If the air is saturated and atmospheric conditions favour moisture retention, an ideal situation is created. Guttated droplets clinging to the tips of blades not only contribute to the infectious environment, but also serve as a valuable nutrient source for the disease.

The most vivid characteristic of brown patch is the "smoke ring" commonly associated with the disease. When disease activity is the greatest, this ring of dark gray fungus mycelium often surrounds the infected area, but disappears as the foliage dries. Even though this is considered as a key identifying feature, unfortunately it is not always present.

Symptoms
Perfect conditions develop for the Rhizoctonia pathogen when temperatures remain consistently above 22 ° C and atmospheric moisture is correspondingly high. Initial infection starts in a circular pattern which may be no more than a few inches across. As the disease increases in intensity, the affected areas may grow up to one metre in diameter. Blades turn from a water soaked purplish green colour to dark brown and eventually wither and dry to a pale light brown. A "smoke ring" of dark grey mycelium may surround the infection and on overcast, moist mornings it can persist well into the day. With the sun drying breezes, activity ceases and the smoke ring disappears. In many instances, brown patch can be active for some time without any impressive visible symptoms and light attacks often cause only wilting. If temperatures remain in the 25 ° C to 30 ° C range, with high humidity, damage can be severe. As temperatures rise above 32 ° C, activity ceases.

Infestation on St Augustinegrass ( Buffalo turf) is roughly circular, lacks the smoke ring, and can cover large areas of turf. It is most destructive between 15 ° C and 25 ° C. Although crown and root rot are common severe brown patch attack on all grasses, St Augustinegrass often shows the most destruction.

Life Cycle
Rhizoctonia solani , the brown patch pathogen, spends dormant periods as sclerotia. These small round bodies, about a sixteenth of an inch in diameter, are dark brown to black and compare very roughly to the seeds of a flowering plant. They are formed on the lower parts of infected plants or in soil debris. When temperatures reach the germinating period, mycelial threads spread outward from the sclerotia to start infection. Sclerotia of Rhizoctonia can survive for a number of years in the soil under many adverse conditions.

Grey Leaf Spot

Although grey leaf spot can infect a number of turf grasses, it is primarily a problem of St Augustinegrass ( Buffalo turf).

grey leaf spot ***

Grey Leaf spot is a summer disease that becomes particularly active during extended periods of hot, humid weather. Most turf diseases are especially injurious on tightly knit grasses, but grey leaf spot thrives on sparse, thin strands of St Augustine . For this reason, newly sprigged lawns are more susceptible to damage than established turf. Sprinkling, which is necessary to start new turf, is generally blamed for splashing spores from the soil to healthy plants.

Grey leaf spot is not considered to be a highly destructive disease, and during the summer season, it is almost always present in varying degrees. When lesions become numerous, the turf often looks like it cannot survive. The elongated spots not only cover the leaves, but also sheaths, stems and seed stalks. But only in rare instances of prolonged neglect is the turf ever permanently damaged.

Symptoms
When the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, and temperatures remain consistently in the 20 ° C to 25 ° C range, grey leaf spot becomes evident. Lesions first appear as tiny brown spots and rapidly enlarge to become oval. The oval spots eventually become elongated, with depressed grayish-tan centers. Lesions are bordered by a brown margin, and the brown margin is surrounded by a band of chlorotic yellow-green tissue. During peak disease activity, a grey mould-like growth often covers the blades.

As the disease becomes more obvious, lesions can be found on sheaths, stems and seeding spikes. Lesions on leaves, sheaths, and spikes are very similar, while those on stems are dark brown, or almost black. During severe attacks, plants take on a withered, dried, or scorched appearance which is quite often mistaken for drought damage.

Life Cycle
Pircularia grisea , the pathogen in grey leaf spot disease, overwinters as inactive mycelium and spores. These are found in the sheaths and lower leaves of infected plants and in the thatch from previous infections. When temperatures reach 20 ° C and there is sufficient atmospheric moisture, a new infection can start. If temperatures remain consistently in the 20 ° C to 30 ° C range, grey leaf spot can spread rapidly. Spores are carried by the wind, or splashed by rain and irrigation water to sites of new infection. As spores come to rest on the leaves of healthy plants, they form appendages which penetrate the surface of the leaf and continue the parasitic chain.

INSECT PESTS OF TURF

African Black Beetle (Heteronychus arator)

Adult black beetles invade turf environments during spring every year. They do some damage by feeding on stems and roots of the grass, but generally this damage is not severe enough to warrant a beetle spray to control them. The exception is where mound formation by their tunneling is unacceptable, such as on putting greens and bowling greens.

african black beetle *

When the moisture in the soil is suitable, the beetles mate under the surface and the female lays up to 80 eggs, about 25-30mm below the surface. This usually occurs between the third week in October and the second week in December. The eggs swell to about twice their original size, to 2mm, and hatch in about two weeks.

The larvae are tiny; about 5mm long and 1mm in diameter. They begin feeding on organic matter in the root zone, initially near the surface then move deeper as they grow.

During the next 10 weeks they shed their skin twice, moulting to second and third instar stages. By late January they are about 25mm long and ready to dig down to about 120mm where they construct a pupal chamber for themselves. The new generation of adults emerges from these chambers during late summer and autumn. They tunnel to the surface and fly away to other turf areas or to grasslands where they spend the winter.

Most significant damage is caused to turf during mid-summer by the second and third instars. They damage roots, limiting the plants' capacity to take up water and nutrients, and extensive areas may brown and die off, particularly if moisture is less than adequate.

Argentinian Scarab (Cyclocephala signaticollis)

The Argentinian scarab beetle was first reported in Australia in the mid 1950's, and has now spread up and down the NSW coast. In the past decade it has become a widespread and serious pest of recreational turf areas.

argentinian scarab *

The adult beetle is very similar in size and shape to the better known African black beetle, but is coloured a mid tan, with subtle striping on the wing carapaces.

Beginning during December, the larvae cause considerable damage to grasses, which can be accentuated by widespread bird-feeding with associated tearing of the turf and by the fact that larval numbers can be as high as 350 per square metre.

Insects that live in thatch

Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda)

The fall armyworm is the larval stage of dull grey-brown moths that hide during bright daylight and then become quite active during the evening. Moths have a wingspread of about 1 ½ inches and dark forewings mottled with patterns of light and dark spots. They lay eggs in masses of a hundred or more on the leaves of grass or other foliage. Tiny larvae hatch in about a week and within three weeks become full grown fall armyworms. Colour varies from light green to brownish-black, with several stripes along the sides. They reach a length of approximately 1 ½ inches and a light cream coloured inverted "Y" covers a shiny brown head. Sparse, long hairs arise from tubercles along the length of the body. Three pairs of legs are arranged near the head and four pairs of stump-like prolegs are found toward the rear of the body.

fall armyworm *

They hide in the thatch during the day and feed at night, cutting off grass close to the crown. They can be detected by placing a wet hessian bag on the grass overnight and inspecting underneath in the morning.

Chewing along the edges of grass blades, the fall armyworm skeletonizes the grass and gives it an overall ragged appearance. In severe infestations, the grass can almost be chewed to the bare ground. Shortly after the larvae reach maturity, they tunnel several inches into the soil and start pupation which takes about ten days.

•  There are several species of armyworms. The true armyworm (pseudaletia unipuncta ) looks very much like the fall armyworm, but lacks the inverted "Y", which appears on the head. It is found less frequently in turf, but can be extremely destructive when present.

Sod Webworms (Family Pyralidae)

The sod webworm is the larval state of the tan or buff-coloured lawn moth. Lawn moths are commonly seen in the early morning flitting above the turf in short zig zag patterns. As the moths fly, they drop eggs which hatch into larvae in just 6 to 10 days. The tiny larvae start feeding on grass blades and building silk-lined tunnels in thatch and debris near the soil surface. Sod webworms are nocturnal insects so they chew and feed at night and remain hidden during he daylight hours. They feed on tender parts of the grass, and as they grow, their appetites increase. Soon entire plants can be destroyed and irregular patches of dead turf appear.

sod webworm*

When mature, the sod webworm reaches a length of about ¾ inch. It is a dingy dull, tannish-brown, but occasionally some species take on a greenish cast. Long, stiff hairs protrude from the brownish-black circular spots that are spaced along he sides and the back. The head is dark, shiny brown.

The sod webworm is elusive and often evades detection, but many birds on the turf are a good indicator. The birds probe the drying turf with their beaks and leave behind a pattern of holes about the diameter of a pencil. Another sure sign of sod webworms is the material called frass. These greenish, course sawdust-like particles are formed by the webworm as it chews and feeds on the grass.

Sod Webworms eventually evolve into a brown, shiny pupal stage, which is spent in crevices or cells in the soil. They emerge as adult moths only during warm summer weather. Winter months are spent in the larval stage, burrowed and hidden in silk lined tunnels. In tropical areas, sod webworms can produce several generations per year.

WEEDS OF TURF

A weed can be loosely defined as a plant out of place. Thus any plant can be declared a weed if it is growing where it is not wanted. In turf there are generally 2 types of weeds Broadleaf and grass weeds.

Grassweeds

NUTGRASS (Cyperus rotundus L.)

Origin. Cosmopolitan distribution.

Description
A perennial sedge with an unjointed solid stem triangular in cross-section. Bright green leaves merge at ground level, tapering to a point. Inflorenscence a loose umbel of brown to purple flat, flattened, persistent spikes subtended by 2-4 leaf-like bracts. Underground, purple, spherical to egg-shaped tubers ('nuts') up to 25mm long (usually about 12mm) are formed on rhizomes; 'nuts' give rise to new shoots and new rhizomes.

Distribution and Importance
One of the world's worst weeds, C.rotundus is reported as a weed in more than 90 countries. In Australia the species occurs as a weed in all mainland States. It is a weed of cultivated crops including cotton, maize, sugar cane, tobacco, market gardens as well as orchards and vineyards, and is a particularly tenacious weed in home gardens and parkland on the east coast. The fragrant roots, which are unpleasant to taste, have been used in Eastern perfumes.

nutgrass* *

The related C. esculentus L., yellow nutgrass, is difficult to distinguish until flowering when it develops a yellowish green inflorescence. It is less widespread and, although a major problem in North America and southern Africa , is regarded as a problem in Australia only on the north coast of Qld. Tubers of this species were eaten raw or roasted by the Aborigines. They have also been eaten in Italy.

Another closely related species C. bifax C.B. Clark, Downs nutgrass, which has smaller tubers than C. rotundus , occurs occasionally in western NSW. In western Qld where it is more abundant, especially in the Channel country, it is regarded as useful sheep fodder.

Origin Cosmopolitan distribution.

Description
Called Crabgrass in the united States , there are two species of summer grass in Australia , namely (D. ciliaris and D. Sanguinalis ). The differences between the 2 species are only slight.

summergrass*

The species are distinguished by minute differences including the length of the upper glume (the lower one being minute in both cases); in D. ciliaris the upper glume is greater than half the spikelet length, and in D. sanguinalis the upper glume is less than half the spikelet length.

They germinate when soil temperatures reach 12 to 15 ° C at 10cm depth Alternating dry and wet conditions at the soil surface in the spring encourages germination. They germinate and grow best when adequate light and moisture are present. They compete best with turf when the turfgrass is thin and open, mowing height is incorrect and light frequent irrigations are applied. Annuals with fibrous roots and clusters of soft stems which grow close to the ground and may root at the nodes. Leaves soft and hairy. Inflorescence composed of 3-13 spikes spreading out from a slender erect stem. Spikelets flat, in pairs, with unequal pedicels pressed against 1 side of the rhachis.

Distribution and Importance
D. sanguinalis is a major weed throughout the world in both temperate and tropical crops, although sometimes utilized for grazing. It occurs throughout most of NSW and other States except Qld.

D. Ciliaris occurs over much of the same area as D. sanguinalis and also in Qld as a weed in pineapple plantations and orchards. Both species are weeds of gardens, lawns, orchards, cultivation and wasteland.

These species are sometimes confused with Eleusine indica crowsfoot grass, but this species does not root at the nodes, has hairless leaves, fewer spikes and several florets per spikelet.

CROWSFOOT GRASS (Eleusine indica (L.) Gaetn)

Origin Cosmopolitan distribution

Description
A tufted, hairless annual up to 0.6m high with a tenacious fibrous root system. Stems upright to sprawling, they may form a mat but do not take root at the nodes. Leaves shiny, green, smooth. Inflorescence usually up to 5-8 terminal spike-like racemes (4-15cm long) in a digitate arrangement. Spikelets with several florets in 2 rows along 1 side of the digitate branches.

Crowsfoot grass germinates when soil temperatures reach 15 to 18 ° C. This can be approx 2-3 weeks later than summer grass. It also requires moisture and light for germination. It is very competitive in thin, open turf and turf subject to heavy traffic. It is a most troublesome weed on golf tees, fairways and sporting fields.

Distribution and Importance
E indica is a major weed in tropical areas of the world, occurring in over 40 crops.

crowsfoot grass* *

In Australia it occurs in all mainland States and is widespread in NSW.It has been suspected of poisoning stock. In Qld it is a weed of pineapples but in other States is mainly a weed of lawns and gardens.

E. tristachya (Lam.) Lam.., goosegrass, a similar species, is smaller (about 20cm high) and is distinguished by having fewer (2-4) and smaller (1-3 cm) inflorescence branches. It is also a problem in lawns and gardens.

Although sometimes called 'crab grasses' these species differ from crabgrass, Digitaria species, in that the latter root at stem nodes, are hairy, have fewer inflorescences and only 2 florets per spikelet.

PASPALUM (Paspalum dilatatum poiret)

Origin A native of South America

Description
A tufted perennial grass up to about 1m high with short rhizomes. Leaf blades hairless, angled along the midrib. Inflorescence of 3-7 spike-like racemes usually less than 5cm long diverging almost at right angles from the main axis. Spikelets fringed with hairs in 3-4 rows on the underside of a flattened rhachis.

Distribution and Importance
P. dilatatum is widespread in coastal NSW and southern Qld.

paspalum* *

It also occurs on the tablelands, slopes and southern plains in NSW, as well as in Vic, SA and WA. Although a useful pasture grass in subtropical coastal areas it is a weed of crops, citrus orchards and lawns. A major world weed, it is a problem in some 28 countries, especially in perennial crops.

P. urvillei Steudel, vasey grass, a similar but larger species (usually 1-2.5 m high), is distinguished by its longer (up to 12cm) and more numerous (usually 12-20) racemes. It is a weed of the central and north coast of NSW and also occurs in Qld and WA.

P. paniculatum L., Russell River grass another similar species, which occurs on the north coast of NSW and WA, particularly in the north, is about 1m high with 20 or more racemes.

WINTER GRASS (Poa annua L.)

Origin. A nature of Europe

Description
Winter grass requires a significant amount of light to germinate, and its optimum temperature range for germination is from 10-16 ° C

wintergrass* *

An annual or occasionally short-lived perennial up to 0.3m high, often much smaller, with a tufted habit. Leaves light green, soft, with a small (up to 3mm) membranous ligule. Inflorescence an open pyramid-shaped panicle produced just above the leaves, with spikelets of 3 or 4 florets towards the ends of branches; lemmas sparsely hairy.

P. trivalis L., rough meadow grass, a similar but much rarer species is distinguished by its perennial stoloniferous habit, its longer ligule (4-10mm), and a tuft of hairs at the base of the lemmas.

Distribution and Importance
P. annua , a cosmopolitan species, is widespread in Australia as a weed of cultivation, lawns and wasteland.

Another perennial somewhat similar to P. annua . P. bulbosa L., is distringuished by its swollen pear shaped leaf bases. It is sometimes found as a pasture weed in central and southern tablelands and slopes of NSW.

Broad Leaf Weeds

CAPEWEED Arctotheca calendula (L.) Levyns
(Cryptostemma calendula (L.) Druce )

Origin. A native of South Afica

Description
A flat stemless or short-stemmed, sprawling annual. Leaves succulent, deeply lobed, covered with down on the lower surface.

capeweed* *

Solitary flower heads of yellow ray florets surrounding central blackish purple disc florets. 'Seeds' woolly.

Distribution and Importance
A. calendula is a widespread weed of cultivation and pastures occurring in all States.

The related A. prostrata (Salisb.) J. Britten, which occurs in Qld and Vic, is prostrate, rooting at stem nodes, and the 'seeds' are never densely woolly.

CARROT WEED Cotula australis (sprengel) J.D. Hook
or COMMON COTULA

Origin A native of Australia .

Description
A small slender herb with carrot-like leaves.

carrotweed* *

Flower heads terminal, solitary, greenish white, on slender leafless erect peduncles. Stems much branched and trailing, often taking root near the base, then becoming more erect.

Distribtution and Importance
C. australis occurs in all States except NT. Widespread and common in moist shady habitats, grasslands, gardens, lawns and wasteland.

BINDII Soliva pterosperma (Juss.) Less.
or JO JO ( S. sessilis auct. Austr. non Ruiz & Pav .)

Origin A native of South Africa.

Description
A small rosette-forming annual with stolons forming additional rosettes.

bindii* *

Leaves finely divided on short petioles. Flower heads slightly convex (not globular), sessile in rosette centers forming burrs with short, sharp spines.

Distribution and Importance
S. pterosperma is principally a weed of lawns and turf familiar to many bare-footed children. It occurs chiefly in eastern areas of NSW as well as Qld, Vic, SA and Tas.

DANDELION (Taraxacum officinale Wiggers s. lat )

Origin A native of Europe .

Description
A prostrate, rose-forming, short-lived perennial with a thick taproot, and containing latex.

dandelion* *

Leaves deeply divided with the margins irregularly toothed, the tips of each lobe pointing towards the leaf base. Flower heads bright yellow on leafless, hollow peduncles. 'Seeds' striped with weak spines near the apex and terminating in a beak (more longer than the seed) which bears a pappus of silky white hairs.

Distribution and Importance
T. officinale occurs throughout temperate regions of Australia ; more common in the cooler and higher rainfall areas. It is a widespread weed of lawns, roadsides, wasteland and occasionally of cultivation and pastures. The leaves, whilst somewhat bitter are edible as a salad green and the roasted roots are ground for coffee. Suspected of causing hayfever.

CHICKWEED (Stellaria media (L.) Vill)

Origin. A native of Europe ; now cosmopolitan

chickweed* *

Description
A delicate annual herb with angular stems. Leaves petiolate, ovate with pointed tips. Flowers in leafy terminal cymes, 5 white petals deeply bisected, surrounded by longer hairy sepals.

Distribution and Importance
S. media is a widespread garden weed in southern Australia and regarded as a serious weed in crops in many parts of the world. It is occasionally used as a green vegetable.

A less common but similar species, S. pallida (Dumort.) Pire, is distinguished by its lack of petals.

FAT HEN (Chenopodium album L)
or WHITE GOOSEFOOT

Origin European and Asian or possibly cosmopolitan distribution.

Description
A non-aromatic erect, annual herb. The species varies considerably in stature, colour and leaf shape. Mature plants typically bushy with many branches, ranging from 0.2 to 2m high, usually mealy, especially the flowers and lower leaf surfaces, giving a blue or grey-green appearance.

Leaves ovate or wedge-shaped with coarsely-toothed margins; upper leaves lanceolate and not toothed . Leafy clusters of tiny flowers occur at the end of branches; even very small plants may flower. Seeds shiny, black, horizontally flattened and circular in outline.

Distribution and importance
C. album is widespread in all states and is a weed of summer crops, winter forage and horticultural crops and is common in home gardens and wasteland.

fat hen* *

It is one of the most prevalent weeds of cultivation in the warmer regions of the world. Although reported to accumulate oxalate and nitrate, animal deaths due to it are rare. It may cause severe flavour taint in milk if eaten by dairy cows.

Since prehistoric times in Europe and America it has been used as a food plant; leaves of young plants were either boiled or consumed raw. Although largely replaced by spinach after the fifteenth century, it was used during famine conditions in Europe during World War II. Flour from the seeds has been used for baking. The related C. quinoa is used today as a source of flour in the high Andes of South America.